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Hispanic Heritage Month 2024

Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program was organized by the National Museum of American History in partnership with the Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service, and received federal support from the Latino Initiatives Pool, administered by the Smithsonian Latino Center. All photographs by Leonard Nadal.

You can view the Bittersweet Harvest exhibit in-person along the windows between the Rotunda and the public computers.

Beneath the slideshow below are captions that are accessible for screen readers.

Logo: Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service

BITTERSWEET HARVEST: THE BRACERO PROGRAM


The Bracero Program

The Bracero Program (1942–1964) was one of the most significant labor agreements in U.S. history, reshaping migration, agriculture, and labor relations in both the United States and Mexico. Born out of necessity during World War II, the program emerged from a bilateral agreement between the U.S. and Mexican governments to address labor shortages in agriculture and railway maintenance. As millions of American men left to fight overseas, a steady influx of Mexican laborers—referred to as braceros, meaning "person who works with their arms"—filled crucial roles in fields and railroads across the United States.

Over its 22-year history, the Bracero Program brought an estimated 4.6 million Mexican men into the U.S. workforce, often under difficult and exploitative conditions. While the program promised fair wages, decent housing, and humane treatment, many workers faced broken contracts, wage theft, and substandard living conditions. Despite these challenges, the Bracero Program left a lasting legacy on U.S.-Mexico migration patterns and played a key role in shaping Latino history in the United States.

The story of the Bracero Program is a complex chapter in American history, touching on themes of immigration, labor rights, social justice, and civil rights. We hope the posters in this exhibition will introduce you to the program and inspire you to further explore the multifaceted experiences of braceros, the economic forces driving the program, and the profound social impacts it left behind. From its origins during World War II to its controversial end in 1964, the Bracero Program remains a critical lens for understanding immigration, labor relations, and the shared histories of Mexico and the United States.

You can learn even more about the program by visiting the Bracero History Archive (braceroarchive.org), which includes both written and oral histories of the Bracero program. Scan the QR code for a direct link to the site.

Bittersweet Harvest Poster - La Historia, The Story


Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program - La Historia, The Story

Entre 1942 y 1964 millones de mexicanos vinieron a los EE.UU. con contratos laborales a corto plazo. El programa bracero (o trabajador agrícola) se convirtió en el programa de trabajadores invitados más grande en la historia de los Estados Unidos. Éste ofreció a los mexicanos trabajo y una oportunidad económica que tanto necesitaban y benefició enormemente la agricultura de los EE.UU. La experiencia de los braceros, tanto amarga como dulce, cuenta una historia de oportunidad, pero también de explotación.

“Todo mundo quería venir acá. Bien o mal, bien tratados o mal tratados… necesitábamos venir.” Pedro del Real Pérez, ex-bracero

Between 1942 and 1964, millions of Mexican nationals came to the U.S. on short-term labor contracts. The bracero (or manual laborer) program became the largest guest worker program in American history. It offered Mexicans much-needed work and economic opportunity, and greatly benefited U.S. agriculture. Both bitter and sweet, the bracero experience tells a story of opportunity, but also of exploitation.

“For good or bad, the whole world wanted to come here. Well treated or poorly treated, either way… we needed to come.” Pedro del Real Pérez, ex-bracero

Bittersweet Harvest Poster - The Journey, El Viaje


Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program - The Journey, El Viaje

Motivated by economic depression in Mexico and the prospect of short-term work in the United States, millions of Mexican men tried to join the bracero program. The process was physically, emotionally, and financially difficult for the aspiring braceros. Leaving their families behind, the men had to travel long distances for processing, which could take weeks. To cross the border, braceros were often subjected to humiliating medical exams. They were told to strip and were sprayed with the pesticide DDT. Braceros had little control over what would happen once they signed a contract, and were sent to farms thousands of miles away with unfamiliar climates and cultures.

“They sprayed us like rats, like insects. We left covered in powder.” Isaías Sánchez, ex-bracero

Motivados por la depresión ecoómica en México y la posibilidad de empleo temporal en los Estados Unidos, millones de hombres mexicanos trataron de unirse al programa bracero. El proceso era físico, emocional y económicamente difícil para los aspirantes braceros. Dejando atrás a sus familias, los candidatos tenían que viajar largas distancias para realizar los trámites, lo cual podría tomar semanas. Para cruzar la frontera, los braceros fueron frecuentemente sometidos a exámenes médicos humillantes. Se les ordenaba a que se desnudaran y se les rociaba con el pesticida DDT. Los braceros tenían muy poco control sobre lo que sucedería una vez firmado un contrato y se les enviaba a tierras de labranza ubicadas a miles de millas de distancia, con climas y culturas desconocidas.

“Nos esprayaban como ratones as como insectos. Salíamos llenos de polvo.” Isaías Sánchez, ex-bracero

Bittersweet Harvest Poster - Amarga Ducle, Bittersweet


Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program - Amarga Dulce, Bittersweet

Para los braceros, el trabajo era frecuentemente extenuante y la vivienda deficiente. Disputas sobre salarios, discriminación, atención inadecuada a la salud y falta de representación laboral eran agravios comunes. A veces, se alojaba a los trabajadores en graneros convertidos y carpas improvisadas, con servicios de agua, calefacción e instalaciones sanitarias limitadas. Las familias que se quedaban atrás en México tenían que hallar la manera de subsistir sin padres, hermanos y maridos. Pero muchos braceros sí se beneficiaron económicamente. Enviaban dinero a su país y crearon oportunidades económicas en México.

“De niño yo no entendía… ¿Por qué no se quedaba ahí?” Felipe Flores, hijo de un bracero

For the braceros, work was often grueling and housing substandard. Disputes over pay, discrimination, inadequate health care, and a lack of worker representation were common grievances. Workers were sometimes housed in converted barns and makeshift tents with limited water, heat, and sanitary facilities. Families left behind in Mexico had to find ways to get by without fathers, brothers, and husbands. But many braceros did benefit financially. They sent money back home and created economic opportunities in Mexico.

“As a kid, I couldn't understand… Why didn't [my father] stay here?” Felipe Flores, son of a bracero

Bittersweet Harvest Poster - The Community, La Comunidad


Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program - The Community, La Comunidad

In Mexico and in the U.S., the bracero program affected families and communities. Bracero workers brought much-needed cash into the Mexican economy, and some men did earn enough to build houses, buy land, or start businesses in Mexico. The program also affected communities across the United States. Some towns held dances and church services in Spanish, as well as other social and business events for the braceros. The workers’ experiences differed depending on where they lived. No matter where they were, the braceros created an informal network that helped each other deal with camp life.

“We sent money to our families in Mexico so [they could]… eat better, dress better, and live better while we were in the U.S.” Ignacio Gómez, ex-bracero

En México y en los EE .UU., el programa bracero afectó a las familias y las comunidades. Los trabajadores braceros trajeron a la economía mexicana el dinero que tanto necesitaba, y algunos hombres ganaron lo suficiente como para construir casas, comprar terreno o abrir negocios en México. El programa tambié afectó comunidades en todas partes de los Estados Unidos. Algunos pueblos organizaban bailes y misas en español,así como otros eventos sociales y comerciales para los braceros. Las experiencias de los trabajadores diferían dependiendo en dónde vivían. Sin importar donde estaban, los braceros crearon una red informal para ayudarse unos a otros a hacer frente a la vida en los campamentos.

“Tuvimos la experiencia de mandar un dinero a nuestras familias en México para que ellos… comer mejor, vestir mejor, y vivir mejor el tiempo que estuviéramos aquí en los Estados Unidos”. Ignacio Gómez, ex-bracero

Bittersweet Harvest Poster - La Cosecha, The Harvest


Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program - La Cosecha,The Harvest

En las tierras de labranza, los braceros trabajaban en los campos de algodón, cítricos, dátiles y en cultivos de trabajo agotador que requería estar agachado, como los de remolacha azucarera, lechuga y fresas. En los inicios del programa, también daban mantenimiento a las vías de los ferrocarriles. Con el tiempo, los braceros fueron enviados a California, Texas, Oregón, Washington, Arkansas y a otros 29 estados. Los contratos duraban desde unas pocas semanas hasta 18 meses. Los campamentos variaban en tamaño, desde apenas unos pocos hasta mil braceros. Aunque el trabajo era extenuante, soportaban estas condiciones con la esperanza de obtener más dinero del que ganarían en su país.

“Allí jue donde conocimos el, precisamente el cortito que le nombran o el azadón. Y yo por cierto que, allí, allí lloré mis lágrimas.” José Natividad Alva Medina , ex-bracero

On farms, braceros worked cotton, citrus, dates, and such backbreaking stoop-labor crops as sugar beets, lettuce, and strawberries. Early in the program, they also maintained railroad tracks. Over time, braceros were sent to California, Texas, Oregon, Washington, Arkansas, and 29 other states. Contracts ranged from a few weeks to 18 months. Camps ranged in size from just a few braceros to a thousand. Although the work was grueling, they endured these conditions, hoping to make more money than they would at home.

“That’s where we encountered el cortito, or what’s called the short-handled hoe. And for sure, that is where I shed my tears.” José Natividad Alva Medina , ex-bracero

Bittersweet Harvest Program - The Legacy El Legao


Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program - The Legacy, El Legado

The bracero program had a direct impact on American immigration and labor policy and, more importantly, on the formation of thriving Mexican American communities in the U.S. Many braceros did not return to Mexico, and some married local women and started new families in the United States. Today, numerous American families and communities can trace their histories to the bracero program. With its legacy of struggle and success, the story of the bracero program is truly bittersweet.

DISCOVER YOUR STORY! The Smithsonian's National Museum of American History is part of a collaborative effort documenting and preserving the history of the bracero program. Visit braceroarchive.org for online access to this fascinating collection of oral histories, photos, documents, and objects.

El programa bracero tuvo un impacto directo en la inmigració y la política laboral estadounidense y, más importante, sobre la formación de comunidades mexicoamericanas florecientes en los EE .UU. Muchos braceros no regresaron a México y algunos de ellos se casaron con mujeres locales y formaron nuevas familias en los Estados Unidos. Hoy en día, numerosas familias y comunidades estadounidenses pueden rastrear sus historias al programa bracero. Con su legado de lucha y éxito, la historia del programa bracero fue realmente agridulce.

¡DESCUBRA SU HISTORIA! El National Museum of American History del Smithsonian es parte de un esfuerzo colaborativo para documentar y preservar la historia del programa bracero. Visite braceroarchive.org para obtener acceso en línea a esta colección fascinante de historias orales, fotografías, documentos y objetos.